2/9/2024 0 Comments Lingonberry fruit![]() Hydrogen peroxide penetrates through the mitochondrial membrane and can also give rise to the more toxic hydroxyl radical. In mitochondria, complex I and III are known to be responsible for ROS production, particularly the superoxide anion which is dismutated to a less toxic but more diffusible form of ROS, i.e., hydrogen peroxide. Out of the total O 2 consumption by plant tissue, an estimated 1% contributes to ROS generation. Production of ROS during respiration is unavoidable since the mitochondrial electron transport chain involves direct reduction of oxygen by the free energy of electrons. Chemical activation occurs when an oxygen molecule is reduced step by step and the activated intermediate products are superoxide radicals, which is the first intermediate, and hydrogen peroxide, which itself is not very reactive but it is reduced to the highly reactive hydroxyl radical. When ground state triplet oxygen is physically activated by transfer of energy, the oxygen molecule gains enough energy to change its spin and become a ROS, i.e., singlet oxygen. ROS may or may not be free radicals, and are intermediates of dioxygen formed when dioxygen is activated either by physical or chemical means. Any molecular species which contains one or more unpaired electrons in its outermost shell and can exist independently is called a free radical. Oxidative Stress and Reactive Oxygen SpeciesĪlthough oxygen is a primary requirement of all forms of aerobic life on earth, its intermediates, when present in higher than normal concentrations in biological systems, may cause potential damage to cells that could ultimately lead to cell death. We also provide an overview regarding the bioavailability of polyphenols found in berries, and the potential neuroprotective effects of these compounds.Ģ. In this review, we discuss oxidative stress and mechanisms of combating this stress. Various species of berries contain high amounts of polyphenols, and therefore dietary intake of berries may increase antioxidants in the body and potentially protect against inflammation, cardiovascular disease and neurodegeneration. ![]() Polyphenols are a group of compounds with high antioxidant capacity and are prevalent in the plant kingdom. Therefore in animals, it is beneficial to increase the amount of antioxidants in the body from external sources. Organisms have developed natural defense mechanisms to combat oxidative stress, but at times these mechanisms can become overwhelmed. When the production of ROS is excessive this can lead to oxidative stress, which can be damaging to cells and organisms as a whole. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are produced during normal metabolism in plants and animals. ![]() Extracts from these species have also demonstrated neuroprotective effects in cellular models of toxicity and inflammation, which are being further pursued in animal models. For example, we have detected various polyphenols in samples of blueberries and lingonberries and have found that the leaves have a much higher antioxidant capacity than the fruits. We also summarize findings from our own research group. We then discuss issues of bioavailability of various compounds in mammals and provide a synopsis of studies demonstrating the neuroprotective ability of berries and polyphenols. In the current review, we discuss the metabolic strategies that plants and animals have developed in order to combat reactive oxygen species. There are now several studies documenting the beneficial effects of various berries in cell models of neurotoxicity as well as in vivo models of neurodegenerative disease. These compounds could potentially be beneficial for brain aging and neurodegenerative disorders. In addition, the fruits and leaves of berries have high amounts of polyphenols, such as flavonoids, which act as potent antioxidants. Berries, as with other types of plants, have developed metabolic mechanisms to survive various environmental stresses, some of which involve reactive oxygen species. Several species of berries, such as blueberries ( Vaccinium angustifolium) and lingonberries ( Vaccinium vitis-idaea L.), have attracted much scientific attention in recent years, especially due to their reported antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.
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